維基百科

馴養

馴養（粵拼：seon4 joeng5），又叫馴化，係指一種生物物種長時間噉畀人類控制同使用，譬如農作物、家禽、家畜同寵物，啲人攞種生物嚟生產嘢食同衫，又或者幫手運輸、看門口甚至係消閒娛樂；而呢個過程影響咗種生物嘅進化，令佢哋進化到有某啲「馴養咗嘅生物普遍有」嘅特徵。

狗同羊都係人類早期馴養嘅動物。

例如貓同狗等都係馴養咗嘅動物，同人共處咗幾千年，進化到有「普遍唔怕人」呢樣特徵，會肯俾人埋身同摸佢哋－相比之下，野生動物普遍都唔會肯俾人埋身[1]。

第一種俾人類馴養嘅動物係狗，作為一種伴生動物，最少喺一萬五千年前就開始喇。其他動物，包括山羊、綿羊、同埋牛，就喺大約一萬一千年前開始俾人馴養。喺雀鳥入面，雞係最早喺東亞俾人馴養嘅，睇嚟係用嚟鬥雞，大約喺七千年前。馬就喺大約五千五百年前喺中亞開始俾人馴養，作為一種工作動物。喺無脊椎動物入面，蠶同埋西方蜜蜂喺超過五千年前就開始俾人馴養，分別係為咗攞絲綢同埋蜜糖。

植物嘅馴養就喺大約一萬三千到一萬一千年前開始，穀物好似小麥同埋大麥噉，喺中東地區，仲有扁豆、豌豆、鷹嘴豆、同埋亞麻等等嘅農作物。大約喺一萬年前開始，美洲嘅原住民就開始種植花生、南瓜、玉米、薯仔、棉花、同埋木薯。稻米就係最早喺中國開始俾人馴養，大約喺九千年前。喺非洲，好似高粱呢啲農作物都開始俾人馴養。農業喺世界各地大約十三個中心發展出嚟，馴養咗唔同嘅農作物同埋動物。

有三類昆蟲，即係小蠹蟲、切葉蟻、同埋養菌白蟻，佢哋各自獨立噉馴養咗一啲真菌物種，用嚟食。以白蟻為例，佢哋之間嘅關係係一種完全必要嘅共生關係，雙方都係噉。

定義

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馴養（唔好同馴服單獨嘅動物搞亂[2][3][4]），係嚟自拉丁文 domesticus，解做「屬於屋企嘅」。[5]呢個詞嘅定義一直都唔係好明確，直到21世紀，美國嘅考古學家Melinda A. Zeder 先至將佢定義為一種長期關係，喺呢種關係入面，人類接管對另一種生物嘅控制同埋照顧，為咗獲得可預測嘅資源供應，最終產生互惠互利嘅結果。佢仲指出，馴養同農業唔係同義詞，因為農業係依賴馴養嘅生物，但係馴養本身唔會自動產生農業。[6]

 
Michael D. Purugganan定義嘅馴養過程圖解，馴養係一種一個物種主動管理另一個物種以獲得資源或服務嘅過程。[7]

Michael D. Purugganan 指出，雖然大家對馴養嘅意思有「本能嘅共識」，即係指「喺人類照顧下搵到嘅植物同埋動物，佢哋為我哋提供利益，而且喺我哋嘅控制下進化」，但係馴養一直都好難定義。[7] 佢評論話，好似白蟻、小蠹蟲、同埋切葉蟻呢啲昆蟲都馴養咗一啲真菌物種，仲指出，其他族群，好似雜草同埋伴生動物，都俾人錯誤噉稱為馴養。[7] Purugganan 從 Zeder 嘅定義出發，提出咗一個「廣義」嘅定義：「一個由互利共生關係產生嘅共同進化過程，喺呢個過程入面，一個物種（馴養者）構建一個環境，喺呢個環境入面，佢主動管理另一個物種（俾馴養嘅物種）嘅生存同埋繁殖，為咗向前者提供資源同埋/或服務。」[7] 佢評論話，噉樣就將生態位營造加入咗馴養者嘅活動入面。[7]

馴養綜合症係喺最初嘅馴養過程入面產生嘅表現型特徵套裝，佢哋將農作物同佢哋嘅野生祖先區分開嚟。[8][9]佢亦都可以指而家喺馴養嘅哺乳動物身上觀察到嘅一組差異，唔一定反映最初嘅馴養過程。呢啲變化包括增加溫馴同埋馴服程度、毛色、牙齒大細縮細、顱面形態、耳同尾嘅形態（例如，耷耳仔）、發情週期、促腎上腺皮質激素同埋神經遞質嘅水平、幼年行為延長，以及腦部大細同埋特定腦區嘅縮細。[10]

原因同埋時間

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想知多啲：新石器時代轉型

動物馴養同埋植物馴養係由最後一次冰期極盛期之後發生嘅氣候同埋環境變化觸發嘅，而且呢啲變化一直持續到今日。呢啲變化令到通過狩獵同埋採集嚟攞食物變得困難。[11]第一種俾人馴養嘅動物係狗，最少喺一萬五千年前。[12]新仙女木期喺一萬二千九百年前係一個極度寒冷同埋乾旱嘅時期，對人類施加咗壓力，要佢哋加強佢哋嘅覓食策略，但係唔利於農業發展。到咗全新世開始嘅一萬一千七百年前，氣候變暖同埋人口增加，導致小規模嘅動物同埋植物馴養，同埋食物供應增加。[13]

一啲主要馴養事件嘅時間線
事件 起源中心 用途 日期/幾多年前
採集野生穀物 亞洲 食物 > 23,000[14]
狗 歐亞大陸 伴生 > 15,000[12]
小麥、大麥 近東 食物 13,000–11,000[14]
亞麻 近東 紡織品 13,000–11,000[15]
山羊、綿羊、豬、牛 近東、南亞 食物 11,000–10,000[12]
稻米 中國 食物 9,000[16]
雞 東亞 鬥雞 7,000[17]
馬 中亞 拉嘢、騎 5,500[12]
蜜蜂 古埃及 蜜糖 > 5,000[18]

家犬喺考古記錄入面嘅出現，最少喺一萬五千年前，之後就係家畜同埋農作物嘅馴養，好似小麥同埋大麥噉，農業嘅發明，以及人類從覓食到耕種嘅轉變，喺地球唔同嘅地方同埋時間發生。[12][19][20][21]例如，大約喺二萬八千年前，喺以色列嘅奧哈羅二號遺址，就開始咗小規模嘅穀物試驗種植。[22]

喺新月沃土一萬一千到一萬年前，動物考古學表明，山羊、豬、綿羊、同埋原牛係最早俾人馴養嘅家畜。喺兩千年之後，瘤牛喺今日巴基斯坦嘅俾路支省俾人馴養。喺東亞八千年前，豬就係由同喺新月沃土發現嘅基因唔同嘅野豬馴養出嚟嘅。[12]貓就係喺新月沃土俾人馴養，可能喺一萬年前，[23]嚟自歐洲野貓，可能係為咗控制齧齒動物，佢哋會破壞儲存嘅食物。[24]

 
起源中心同埋農業喺新石器時代革命入面嘅傳播，根據2003年嘅理解。[25]

動物

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理想嘅特徵

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想知多啲：脊椎動物嘅馴養
 
馴養嘅動物通常比佢哋嘅野生同類細隻同埋冇咁具侵略性；好多都有其他馴養綜合症特徵，好似較短嘅口鼻。[26] 灰狼（左）、芝娃娃（右）嘅頭骨

脊椎動物嘅馴養係指非人類脊椎動物同埋人類之間嘅關係，人類會影響佢哋嘅照顧同埋繁殖。[6] 查理斯·達爾文喺佢1868年嘅著作《動物和植物喺馴養下嘅變異》入面，認到咗一小部分特徵，呢啲特徵令到馴養物種同佢哋嘅野生祖先唔同。佢都係第一個認到有意識選擇育種同埋無意識選擇之間嘅分別，有意識選擇係指人類直接選擇理想嘅特徵，而無意識選擇係指特徵作為自然選擇嘅副產品或者從對其他特徵嘅選擇入面進化出嚟。[27][28][29]

家養種群同埋野生種群之間存在差異；呢啲差異嘅一啲構成咗馴養綜合症，即係喺馴養早期階段被認為至關重要嘅特徵，而其他一啲則代表後期嘅改良特徵。[8][30][31]特別係馴養嘅哺乳動物，通常比佢哋嘅野生同類細隻同埋冇咁具侵略性；其他常見嘅特徵係耷耳仔、較細嘅腦袋、同埋較短嘅口鼻。[26]馴養特徵通常喺所有馴養動物入面都固定咗，而且喺嗰種動物或者植物最初馴養嘅時候俾人選擇咗，而改良特徵就只係喺一部分馴養動物入面存在，不過佢哋可能喺個別品種或者區域種群入面固定落嚟。[30][31][32]

一啲動物物種，同埋嗰啲物種入面嘅一啲個體，由於佢哋嘅行為特徵，因此更適合做馴養嘅候選者：[33][34][35][36]

  1. 佢哋嘅社會結構嘅大細同埋組織[33]
  2. 佢哋選擇配偶嘅可能性同埋選擇性程度[33]
  3. 父母同幼崽建立聯繫嘅容易程度同埋速度，以及幼崽出生時嘅成熟度同埋活動能力[33]
  4. 飲食同埋棲息地耐受性嘅靈活程度[33]
  5. 對人類同埋新環境嘅反應，包括減少逃跑反應同埋對外部刺激嘅反應。[33]

哺乳動物

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想知多啲：馴養動物列表
 
雖然狗係伴生動物，綿羊係為咗食物而飼養，但係駱駝係作為工作動物俾人馴養嘅。[33]

哺乳動物馴養嘅開始涉及一個漫長嘅共同進化過程，喺唔同嘅途徑上面有多個階段。大多數哺乳動物馴養物跟隨以下三種擬議嘅主要途徑進入馴養：[33][31][37]

  1. 伴生動物，適應人類嘅生態位（例如，狗、貓，可能豬）[33]
  2. 為咗食物而追捕嘅獵物動物（例如，綿羊、山羊、牛、水牛、犛牛、豬、馴鹿、駱馬同埋羊駝）[33]
  3. 為咗拉嘢同埋騎乘而針對嘅動物（例如，馬、驢、駱駝）。[33]

人類並唔係有意馴養嚟自伴生途徑或者獵物途徑嘅哺乳動物，或者至少佢哋冇預料到會從中產生馴養動物。喺呢兩種情況下，隨住佢哋之間關係嘅加強，人類同呢啲物種糾纏埋一齊，人類喺佢哋生存同埋繁殖入面嘅作用逐漸演變成正式嘅畜牧業。[31]雖然役用同埋騎乘動物嘅定向途徑係從捕獲到馴服，但係其他兩種途徑就冇咁多目標導向，考古記錄表明，佢哋嘅時間跨度要長得多。[38]

同其他主要為咗生產相關特徵而選擇嘅馴養物種唔同，狗最初係因為佢哋嘅行為而俾人選擇嘅。[39][40]狗喺其他動物之前好耐就已經俾人馴養，[41][42]喺農業之前，喺歐亞大陸確立咗地位，遠早於晚更新世末期。[41]

考古學同埋基因數據表明，野生種群同埋家養種群之間嘅長期雙向基因流——好似喺驢、馬、新世界同埋舊世界嘅駱駝、山羊、綿羊同埋豬入面——係好常見嘅。[31][37]人類對家養特徵嘅選擇可能抵消咗嚟自野豬流入豬入面嘅基因流嘅均質化效應，並且喺基因組入面創造咗馴養島。同樣嘅過程可能適用於其他馴養動物。[43][44]

2023年嘅寄生蟲介導嘅馴養假說提出，內寄生蟲，例如蠕蟲同埋原生動物，可能介導咗哺乳動物嘅馴養。馴養涉及馴服，佢具有內分泌成分；而寄生蟲可以改變內分泌活動同埋微型核糖核酸。對寄生蟲嘅抗性基因可能同馴養綜合症嘅基因有關；預計馴養動物對寄生蟲嘅抵抗力比佢哋嘅野生親戚弱。[45][46]

雀鳥

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内文：家禽同養鳥學
 
泰米爾納德邦嘅鬥雞，2011年
 
雞係由原雞馴養出嚟嘅，睇嚟係為咗鬥雞，大約喺七千年前。[17]

馴養嘅雀鳥主要係指家禽，飼養嚟攞肉同埋蛋：[47]一啲雞形目（雞、火雞、珠雞）同埋雁形目（水禽：鴨、鵝、同埋天鵝）。籠鳥，好似鳴禽同埋鸚鵡，都俾人廣泛馴養；佢哋既係為咗娛樂，又係為咗研究用途而飼養。[48] 家鴿既俾人用嚟做食物，又俾人用嚟作為遠方地方之間嘅通訊手段，通過利用鴿子嘅歸巢本能；研究表明，佢哋最早喺一萬年前就俾人馴養。[49]喺中國發現嘅雞化石可以追溯到七千四百年前。雞嘅野生祖先係 原雞，東南亞嘅原雞。呢個物種最初睇嚟係為咗鬥雞而飼養，而唔係為咗食物。[17]

無脊椎動物

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想知多啲：蜜蜂馴養、養蜂業同蠶絲業

有兩種昆蟲，蠶同埋西方蜜蜂，已經俾人馴養咗超過五千年，通常係為咗商業用途。蠶係為咗佢嘅蛹繭周圍纏繞嘅絲線而飼養；西方蜜蜂係為咗蜜糖，同埋從20世紀開始，為咗農作物嘅授粉。[18][50]

仲有其他幾種無脊椎動物俾人馴養，包括陸生同埋水生，包括一啲好似黑腹果蠅果蠅同埋淡水刺胞動物 水螅，係為咗研究遺傳學同埋生理學。佢哋之中好少有悠久嘅馴養歷史。大多數都係用嚟做食物或者其他產品，好似蟲膠同埋胭脂蟲紅。涉及嘅門包括刺胞動物門、扁形動物門（用於生物蟲害控制）、環節動物門、軟體動物門、節肢動物門（海洋甲殼亞門以及昆蟲同埋蜘蛛）、同埋棘皮動物門。雖然好多海洋軟體動物俾人用嚟做食物，但係只有少數俾人馴養，包括槍烏賊、烏賊同埋八爪魚，佢哋都喺行為同埋神經學研究入面俾人用。陸生蝸牛，即係喺 蝸牛屬 入面嘅，係為咗食物而飼養。一啲寄生或者寄生性昆蟲，包括蠅 Eucelatoria、甲蟲 Chrysolina 同埋黃蜂 蚜繭蜂屬，係為咗生物防治而飼養。有意識或者無意識嘅人工選擇對馴養下嘅物種產生咗好多影響；變異性好容易因為近親繁殖、選擇對抗唔理想嘅特徵或者基因漂變而喪失，而喺 果蠅 入面，羽化時間（成蟲出現嘅時間）嘅變異性就增加咗。[51]


植物

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想知多啲：農業史同馴養植物列表

人類喺野生穀物、種子同埋堅果俾人馴養之前嘅幾千年就開始採集佢哋；例如，野生小麥同埋大麥，喺最少二萬三千年前就已經喺黎凡特俾人採集。[52][14]西亞嘅新石器時代社會最早喺大約一萬三千到一萬一千年前開始種植，然後馴養呢啲植物嘅一啲。[14]西亞新石器時代嘅始祖農作物包括穀物（二粒小麥、一粒小麥、大麥）、豆類（扁豆、豌豆、鷹嘴豆、苦野豌豆）、同埋亞麻。[15][53]其他植物喺美洲、非洲同埋亞洲（中東、南亞、遠東、同埋新畿內亞同埋華萊西亞）嘅13個起源中心（細分做24個區域）獨立噉俾人馴養；喺呢啲地區嘅大約十三個入面，人類開始種植草同埋穀物。[54][55]稻米最早喺東亞開始種植。[56][57]高粱喺撒哈拉以南非洲地區廣泛種植，[58]而花生、[59]南瓜、[59][60]棉花、[59]玉米、[61]薯仔、[62]同埋木薯[63]就喺美洲俾人馴養。[59]

根據考古學同埋遺傳學嘅證據，持續嘅馴養係漸進同埋地域分散嘅——喺好多細小嘅步驟入面發生，並且分佈喺廣闊嘅區域。[64]佢係一個間歇性試錯嘅過程，而且通常會產生唔同嘅特徵同埋特性。[65]

動物嘅馴養對控制行為嘅基因影響最大，而植物嘅馴養就對控制形態（種子大細、植物結構、傳播機制）同埋生理（發芽或者成熟時間）嘅基因影響最大，[33][20]好似小麥嘅馴養噉。野生小麥喺成熟嘅時候會落粒並跌落地面重新播種，但係馴養嘅小麥就會留喺莖上面，以便更容易收割。呢個變化係有可能嘅，因為喺小麥種植嘅開始時，野生種群入面發生咗隨機突變。具有呢種突變嘅小麥會更頻繁噉俾人收割，並且成為下一季作物嘅種子。因此，早期嘅農民喺冇意識到嘅情況下選擇咗呢種突變。結果就係馴養嘅小麥，佢嘅繁殖同埋傳播都依賴農民。[14]

  •  
    農民同小麥同埋牛——古埃及藝術，三千四百年前
  •  
    野生小麥嘅麥穗喺成熟嘅時候會散落，但係馴養嘅小麥就必須要脫粒同埋揚穀（如圖所示）先可以釋放同埋分離穀粒。哈羅德·韋斯頓喺1920年代喺伊朗拍攝嘅照片


同野生植物嘅分別

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内文：馴養綜合症 § 喺植物入面
 
一粒小麥會裂開成單獨嘅小穗，令到收割變得困難。馴養嘅穀物唔會落粒。[66][67]

馴養植物同佢哋嘅野生親戚喺好多方面都有唔同，包括

植物對抗食草動物嘅防禦，好似刺、荊棘同埋針刺、毒素、保護性覆蓋物同埋堅固性，喺馴養植物入面可能已經減少咗。噉樣會令佢哋更容易俾食草動物食，除非有人類保護，但係對於呢個觀點嘅支持力度唔係好強。[70]農民確實選擇咗降低苦澀味同埋降低毒性，以及提高食物質量，噉樣可能會提高農作物對食草動物同人類嘅適口性。[70]但係，一項對 29 種植物馴養嘅調查發現，農作物喺化學（例如，用苦味物質）同埋形態學（例如，用堅韌性）方面，都同佢哋嘅野生祖先一樣，可以好好噉抵抗兩種主要嘅昆蟲害蟲（甜菜夜蛾同埋桃蚜）。[73]

植物基因組嘅變化

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馴養嘅小麥通過多次雜交同埋多倍體，從多個野生祖先進化而嚟，增加咗基因組嘅大細同埋可進化性。[74]

喺馴養期間，農作物品種會經歷強烈嘅人工選擇，呢啲選擇會改變佢哋嘅基因組，建立將佢哋定義為馴養嘅核心特徵，好似穀粒大細增加噉。[14][75]對染色體 8 入面嘅編碼DNA喺香米同埋非香米品種之間進行比較，結果顯示，包括印度香米同埋茉莉香米在內嘅芳香型香米，係嚟自一種祖先香米馴養種，佢嘅外顯子 7 入面發生咗缺失，噉樣改變咗甜菜鹼醛脫氫酶（BADH2）嘅編碼。[76]將薯仔基因組同其他植物嘅基因組進行比較，搵到咗抗晚疫病基因，晚疫病係由 致病疫黴 引起嘅。[77]

喺椰子入面，對10個微衛星DNA位點（嘅非編碼DNA）進行基因組分析，發現咗兩次馴養事件，原因係印度洋入面嘅個體同埋太平洋入面嘅個體之間存在差異。[78][79] 椰子經歷咗奠基者效應，即係一小部分多樣性低嘅個體建立咗現代種群，永久噉喪失咗野生種群嘅大部分遺傳變異。[78]種群瓶頸喺馴養之後嘅某個較晚嘅日期，降低咗整個基因組嘅變異，喺農作物入面係好明顯嘅，好似珍珠粟、棉花、菜豆同埋利馬豆噉。[79]

喺小麥入面，馴養涉及重複嘅雜交同埋多倍體。呢啲步驟係對基因組同埋表觀基因組嘅大型同埋基本上即時嘅變化，令到對人工選擇嘅快速進化反應成為可能。多倍體增加咗染色體嘅數量，帶嚟基因同埋等位基因嘅新組合，進而實現進一步嘅變化，好似通過染色體互換噉。[74]

對植物微生物組嘅影響

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微生物組，即係棲息喺植物表面同埋內部組織嘅微生物集合，會俾馴養影響。呢包括微生物物種組成[80][81][82]同埋多樣性嘅變化。[83][82]植物譜系，包括物種形成、馴養同埋育種，已經以同植物基因相似嘅模式塑造咗植物內生菌（系統發育共生）。[82][84][85][86]

真菌

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想知多啲：馴養真菌同埋微生物列表
 
人工栽培嘅蘑菇俾人廣泛種植做食物。

有幾種真菌物種俾人馴養，直接用嚟做食物，或者喺發酵入面產生食物同埋藥物。人工栽培嘅蘑菇 雙孢蘑菇 俾人廣泛種植做食物。[87] 釀酒酵母 俾人使用咗幾千年嚟發酵啤酒同埋葡萄酒，同埋令麵包發酵。[88]黴菌，包括 青黴菌屬，俾人用嚟令芝士同埋其他奶製品成熟，以及製造藥物，好似抗生素噉。[89]

影響

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對家養動物嘅影響

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為咗可見特徵而選擇動物，可能會對家養動物嘅遺傳學產生唔理想嘅後果。[90]馴養嘅副作用之一係人畜共通傳染病。例如，牛俾咗人類各種病毒性痘、麻疹、同埋肺結核；豬同埋鴨貢獻咗流感；而馬就帶嚟咗鼻病毒。好多寄生蟲嘅起源都係嚟自家養動物。[91]除咗呢啲之外，馴養嘅出現導致咗更密集嘅人口，噉樣為病原體提供咗成熟嘅條件嚟繁殖、變異、傳播，並最終喺人類入面搵到新嘅宿主。[92]

對社會嘅影響

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學者對馴養對社會嘅影響表達咗廣泛唔同嘅觀點。原始無政府主義批評馴養破壞咗狩獵採集社會入面據稱原始嘅同大自然和諧相處嘅狀態，並且用一種社會等級制度嚟取代佢，可能通過暴力或者奴役，因為財產同埋權力出現咗。[93]辯證自然主義者默里·布克欽認為，動物嘅馴養反過嚟意味住人類嘅馴養，雙方都無可避免噉俾佢哋之間嘅關係改變咗。[94]社會學家大衛·尼伯特斷言，動物嘅馴養涉及對動物嘅暴力同埋對環境嘅破壞。佢認為，噉樣反過嚟腐蝕咗人類嘅道德觀，並且為「征服、滅絕、流離失所、鎮壓、強迫同埋奴役、性別從屬同埋性剝削，以及飢餓」鋪平咗道路。[95]

對多樣性嘅影響

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想知多啲：可持續農業
 
具有簡化生態系統嘅土地上嘅工業化農業

馴養嘅生態系統提供食物、減少掠食者同埋自然危險，並促進商業，但係佢哋嘅創造已經導致咗棲息地嘅改變或者喪失，同埋從晚更新世開始嘅多次滅絕事件。[96]

馴養會降低馴養種群嘅遺傳多樣性，特別係俾選擇針對嘅基因嘅等位基因。[97]原因之一係種群瓶頸，佢係通過人工選擇最理想嘅個體嚟繁殖而產生嘅。大部分馴養品系都係由少數祖先所生，產生咗一種同奠基者效應類似嘅情況。[98]馴養種群，好似狗、稻米、向日葵、玉米、同埋馬，都有增加嘅遺傳負荷，噉係喺種群瓶頸入面預料之中嘅，喺種群瓶頸入面，遺傳漂變俾細種群大細增強咗。突變亦都可以通過選擇性清除固定喺種群入面。[99][100]當繁殖適應性受到人類管理嘅控制嗰陣時，突變負荷可能會因為對中度有害特徵嘅選擇壓力降低而增加。[26]但係，有證據反對農作物入面嘅瓶頸，好似大麥、玉米同埋高粱，喺呢啲農作物入面，遺傳多樣性係緩慢下降，而唔係喺馴養嗰陣時顯示快速嘅初始下降。[99][98]此外，呢啲農作物嘅遺傳多樣性定期從自然種群入面補充。[99]馬、豬、牛同埋山羊都存在類似嘅證據。[26]

昆蟲嘅馴養

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至少有三類昆蟲，即係小蠹蟲、切葉蟻、同埋養菌白蟻，佢哋馴養咗真菌物種。[7][101]

小蠹蟲

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想知多啲：小蠹蟲

象鼻蟲亞科小蠹亞科同埋扁足甲亞科入面嘅小蠹蟲喺枯死或者受壓樹木入面挖掘隧道，佢哋喺隧道入面引入真菌園，真菌園係佢哋唯一嘅營養來源。喺降落到合適嘅樹木之後，小蠹蟲挖掘一個隧道，佢喺隧道入面釋放佢嘅真菌共生體。真菌滲透到植物嘅木質部組織入面，從中提取營養，並將營養集中喺甲蟲通道嘅表面同埋附近。小蠹蟲真菌通常唔擅長分解木材，而係利用要求較低嘅營養物質。[102]共生真菌產生乙醇並對其進行解毒，乙醇對小蠹蟲具有吸引力，並且可能阻止拮抗性病原體嘅生長，並選擇其他有益嘅共生體。[103]小蠹蟲主要喺最近枯死嘅樹木嘅木材入面定居。[104]

切葉蟻

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想知多啲：切葉蟻

切葉蟻係指弓背蟻屬同埋切葉蟻屬入面大約47種咀嚼樹葉嘅螞蟻。螞蟻將佢哋切落嚟嘅樹葉圓片搬返蟻巢，喺嗰度佢哋將樹葉材料餵俾佢哋照料嘅真菌。其中一啲真菌並未完全馴養：Mycocepurus smithii 養殖嘅真菌不斷產生對螞蟻冇用嘅孢子，螞蟻反而食真菌菌絲。另一方面，切葉蟻屬螞蟻嘅馴養過程係完整嘅；佢用咗三千萬年先完成。[105]

養菌白蟻

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想知多啲：雞土白蟻亞科同雞土白蟻屬

大約330種雞土白蟻亞科嘅養菌白蟻飼養 雞土白蟻屬 真菌嚟食；馴養只發生過一次，喺二千五百萬到四千萬年前。[7][101]呢啲真菌，羅傑·海姆喺1942年描述過，生長喺由白蟻排泄物形成嘅「梳子」上面，以堅韌嘅木質碎片為主。[106]白蟻同埋真菌喺呢種關係入面都係專性共生體。[107]


睇埋

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參考文獻

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  1. ↑ Zeder, M.A. (2015). "Core questions in domestication Research". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (11): 3191-98.
  2. ↑ Price, Edward O. (2008). Principles and applications of domestic animal behavior: an introductory text. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781780640556. 喺January 21, 2016搵到.
  3. ↑ Driscoll, C. A.; MacDonald, D. W.; O'Brien, S. J. (2009). "From wild animals to domestic pets, an evolutionary view of domestication". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (Supplement 1): 9971–9978. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9971D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0901586106. PMC 2702791. PMID 19528637.
  4. ↑ Diamond, Jared (2012). "Chapter 1". 出自 Gepts, P. (編). Biodiversity in Agriculture: Domestication, Evolution, and Sustainability. Cambridge University Press. p. 13.
  5. ↑ "Domesticate". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2014. 原著喺July 20, 2012歸檔.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Zeder, Melinda A. (2015). "Core questions in domestication Research". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (11): 3191–3198. Bibcode:2015PNAS..112.3191Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.1501711112. PMC 4371924. PMID 25713127.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Purugganan, Michael D. (2022). "What is domestication?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 37 (8): 663–671. Bibcode:2022TEcoE..37..663P. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2022.04.006. PMID 35534288.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Olsen, K. M.; Wendel, J. F. (2013). "A bountiful harvest: genomic insights into crop domestication phenotypes". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 64: 47–70. doi:10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120048. PMID 23451788. S2CID 727983.
  9. ↑ Hammer, K. (1984). "Das Domestikationssyndrom". Kulturpflanze (German). 32: 11–34. doi:10.1007/bf02098682. S2CID 42389667.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  10. ↑ Wilkins, Adam S.; Wrangham, Richard W.; Fitch, W. Tecumseh (July 2014). "The 'Domestication Syndrome' in Mammals: A Unified Explanation Based on Neural Crest Cell Behavior and Genetics" (PDF). Genetics. 197 (3): 795–808. doi:10.1534/genetics.114.165423. PMC 4096361. PMID 25024034.
  11. ↑ Zalloua, Pierre A.; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (January 6, 2017). "Mapping Post-Glacial expansions: The Peopling of Southwest Asia". Scientific Reports. 7: 40338. Bibcode:2017NatSR...740338P. doi:10.1038/srep40338. PMC 5216412. PMID 28059138.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 MacHugh, David E.; Greger; Orlando, Ludovic (2017). "Taming the Past: Ancient DNA and the Study of Animal Domestication". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences. 5: 329–351. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022516-022747. PMID 27813680. S2CID 21991146.
  13. ↑ McHugo, Gillian P.; Dover, Michael J.; MacHugh, David E. (2019-12-02). "Unlocking the origins and biology of domestic animals using ancient DNA and paleogenomics". BMC Biology. 17 (1): 98. doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0724-7. PMC 6889691. PMID 31791340.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 Purugganan, Michael D.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (February 1, 2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication" (PDF). Nature. 457 (7231): 843–848. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..843P. doi:10.1038/nature07895. PMID 19212403. S2CID 205216444.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Zohary, Hopf & Weiss 2012, p. 139.
  16. ↑ Fornasiero, Alice; Wing, Rod A.; Ronald, Pamela (2022). "Rice domestication". Current Biology. 32 (1): R20–R24. Bibcode:2022CBio...32..R20F. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.11.025. PMID 35015986.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Lawler, Andrew; Jerry (June 2012). "How the Chicken Conquered the World". Smithsonian Magazine (June 2012).
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Aizen, Marcelo A.; Harder, Lawrence D. (2009). "The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees Is Growing Slower Than Agricultural Demand for Pollination". Current Biology. 19 (11): 915–918. Bibcode:2009CBio...19..915A. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.071. PMID 19427214. S2CID 12353259.
  19. ↑ Fuller, Dorian Q.; Willcox, George; Allaby, Robin G. (2011). "Cultivation and domestication had multiple origins: Arguments against the core area hypothesis for the origins of agriculture in the Near East". World Archaeology. 43 (4): 628–652. doi:10.1080/00438243.2011.624747. S2CID 56437102.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Zeder, Melinda A. (2006). "Archaeological approaches to documenting animal domestication". 出自 Zeder, M. A.; Bradley, D. G.; Emshwiller, E.; Smith, B. D. (編). Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 209–227.
  21. ↑ Galibert, Francis; Quignon, Pascale; Hitte, Christophe; André, Catherine (2011-03-01). "Toward understanding dog evolutionary and domestication history". Comptes Rendus Biologies. On the trail of domestications, migrations and invasions in agriculture. 334 (3): 190–196. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2010.12.011. PMID 21377613.
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來源

編輯

Banning, Edward B. (2002). "Aceramic Neolithic". 出自 Peregrine, Peter N.; Ember, Melvin (編). Encyclopedia of Prehistory, Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Diamond, Jared (2005) [1997]. Guns, Germs, and Steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 9780099302780.

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外部連結

編輯

Crop Wild Relative Inventory and Gap Analysis: reliable information source on where and what to conserve ex-situ for crop gene pools of global importance

Discussion of animal domestication with Jared Diamond

The Initial Domestication of Cucurbita pepo in the Americas 10,000 Years Ago

Cattle domestication diagram 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期December 19, 2010，.

Major topic 'domestication': free full-text articles (more than 100 plus reviews) in National Library of Medicine

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