巴勒斯坦人大逃亡
巴勒斯坦人大逃亡 (阿拉伯文:النكبة,羅馬拼音:an-Nakbah,直譯 「災難」),又可以跟阿拉伯文原文叫做Nakba,係巴勒斯坦人大型咁由巴勒斯坦地區度走難,而成為無家可歸嘅難民嘅過程。有唔少學家都認為呢件事屬於種族清洗,不過亦有啲反對。呢件事一般都係講緊喺第一次中東戰爭期間發生嘅事,不過其實亦可以理解做巴勒斯坦人整體嘅災難,包括埋今時今日佢哋要求嘅回歸權或者依家難民嘅地位[1][2][3][4]。呢個概念好多時都係針對以色列嘅行為[5]。
巴勒斯坦人大逃亡 | |
---|---|
1948年,一位巴勒斯坦人望住一間難民學校 | |
地點 | 英屬巴勒斯坦 |
襲擊目標 | 巴勒斯坦人 |
形式 | 種族清洗、強制遷徙 |
歷史
編輯喺第一次中東戰爭期間,以色列軍隊估計炸爛咗大約400-600條巴勒斯坦人嘅村[1],而有啲更加係用生化武器嘅手段嚟清空[6][7] 。好多地方到打完仗之後,就由阿拉伯文嘅名改咗做希伯來文嘅名,同埋變成猶太人嘅地頭[8]。
當時有超過70萬巴勒斯坦人流離失所[9],大約即係英屬巴勒斯坦入面阿拉伯人嘅一半人口,其中有25-30萬係喺以色列成立之前發生。佢哋有啲係因為打仗而避難,不過有其他亦係因為畀以色列軍隊逼而搬走[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] 。加上以色列喺打仗期間,亦破壞咗巴勒斯坦人嘅私有財產同埋佢哋嘅社會同文化,而加埋就係叫做佢哋嘅“大災難”(Nakba)[19][20][21][22][23]。
大家一般都冇一個好準確嘅數,去估到巴勒斯坦人嘅難民人數[24]。喺最後成為咗以色列國土嘅阿拉伯人當中,有8成最後都流離失所[25][26]。
有學家認為,阿拉伯聯盟加入第一次中東戰爭嘅其中一個原因,就係為咗避免巴勒斯坦人崩潰同埋阻慢佢哋成為難民嘅過程[27][28]。
影響
編輯巴勒斯坦人大逃亡係巴勒斯坦人嘅身份認同一個好大嘅部分,有好多關於呢件事嘅書、歌、同埋詩歌等等[31]。對於佢哋嚟講,呢次災難就係佢哋自己種族嘅大創傷。相反,以色列就睇佢成係自己國家成功獨立嘅過程,純粹係場仗嘅一部分[32][33][34] 。巴勒斯坦人紀念5月15號做“Nakba 日”,嚟紀念第一次中東戰爭期間嘅災難,同時亦都係以色列獨立日之後嗰日[35][36] 。到1967年嘅六日戰爭,巴勒斯坦人再一次出現流離失所嘅情況,而呢次紀念就係6月5號 嘅“Naksa 日” (直譯 「挫折」)。
爭議
編輯巴勒斯坦人大逃亡嘅原因係非常之受爭議,歷史學家各自都有唔同嘅睇法。部分睇法包括:猶太軍隊嘅前進、好多阿拉伯村炸爛咗、心理戰、喺猶太軍隊喺 Deir Yassin 大屠殺之後,令巴勒斯坦人好驚所以走咗佬[37]:239–240 、以色列直接要求當地人疏散、阿拉伯人之中嘅上層階級好早就走哂[38]、以色列喺井度放傷寒毒,令好多村民因為驚而走人[39]、巴勒斯坦政府冧檔同埋阿拉伯軍隊做嘅疏散命令[40][41] 、同埋阿拉伯人唔想住喺一個猶太人控制嘅國家等等[42][43]。
之後,以色列政府通過咗私有財產嘅法例,阻止走咗嘅阿拉伯人返返去佢哋嘅屋企,令佢哋繼續做難民,而好多屋最後都成為咗猶太人嘅財產[44][45]。有學家認為呢啲行動可以形容做種族清洗[46][7][47],不過亦有其他反對呢個講法[48][49][50]。除此之外,以色列通過咗回歸法容許海外猶太人歸化同埋成為以色列公民,不過就拒絕咗對巴勒斯坦人嘅回歸權。所以,有人比較呢種政策做“南非種族隔離”[51][52]。巴勒斯坦難民嘅回歸權到依家,仍然係以巴衝突嘅主要爭議之一。
巴勒斯坦睇法
編輯根據巴勒斯坦方面嘅眼光,佢哋嘅大逃亡係破壞佢哋自己國家嘅重大悲劇,粉碎咗巴勒斯坦人嘅政治同道德嘅身份認同。自從1948年以嚟,佢哋因為猶太人大屠殺而被逼做咗最大嘅付出,因為納粹德國嘅罪而用巴勒斯坦人自己嘅自由嚟付上代價[32]。
根據耶路撒冷公共政策中心嘅 Shmuel Trigano,巴勒斯坦人對於大逃亡嘅睇法分咗幾個階段。首先,巴勒斯坦人因為猶太移民同埋以色列立國嘅關係而成為咗受害人。到1967年六日戰爭嗰陣,以色列因為控制咗西岸地區同加沙走廊,而開始用巴勒斯坦人嘅國家嚟成立殖民地。到再之後,以色列已經喺巴勒斯坦人嘅國家,特別係西岸地區,成立咗好多年嘅聚居地。呢個習慣令以色列同曾經迫害猶太人嘅納粹德國用一樣嘅手法,嚟迫害巴勒斯坦人。Trigano 認為呢個睇法忽略咗好多其他重要嘅歷史事件,例如:阿拉伯軍隊曾經嘗試完全剷走以色列、以巴之間嘅土地爭議、同埋嚟自阿拉伯世界嘅猶太難民等等[53]。
以色列睇法
編輯以色列嘅睇法拒絕咗巴勒斯坦人嘅講法,認為呢次大逃亡係打仗嘅一部分。對於以色列,佢哋原本根據聯合國大會181號決議已經能夠成立自己嘅國家,不過因為阿拉伯國家反對,所以先要打仗嚟成立國家嘅主權。雖然以色列亦都承認自己對巴勒斯坦人嘅難民有部分責任,不過一般都認為係打仗嘅艱難決定,同時亦都指明阿拉伯軍隊,對唔少猶太人亦都有同樣或者類似嘅對待[34]。根據呢個睇法,第一次中東戰爭係猶太人成功為自己嘅民族立國,令自己唔再係一個流散嘅人口 [32] 。
以色列嘅睇法著重阿拉伯軍隊對於某啲巴勒斯坦人嘅疏散命令,睇佢成做阿拉伯軍隊嘗試毀滅以色列嘅手法。到佢哋輸咗場仗之後,就拒絕將啲巴勒斯坦人融入返去佢哋自己嘅屋企[33]。呢個睇法認為阿拉伯國家係刻意令巴勒斯坦人繼續無國籍嚟做政治上嘅棋。一般以色列嘅睇法都唔會形容巴勒斯坦人嘅村做“炸爛”或者“充公”,而係“賴低”或者“人口交換”等等嘅字眼[34]。
睇埋
編輯攷
編輯- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Masalha 2012, p. 3.
- ↑ Dajani, Omar (2005). "Surviving Opportunities". 出自 Tamara Wittes Cofman (編). How Israelis and Palestinians Negotiate: A Cross-cultural Analysis of the Oslo Peace Process. US Institute of Peace Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-929223-64-0. 喺2 April 2021搵到.
- ↑ Abu-Lughod 2007, p. 3.
- ↑ Khalidi, Rashid I. (1992). "Observations on the Right of Return". Journal of Palestine Studies. 21 (2): 29–40. doi:10.2307/2537217. JSTOR 2537217.
- ↑ Sayigh, Rosemary (2023) [2015]. "On the Burial of the Palestinian Nakba". Routledge International Handbook of Ignorance Studies (第2版). Routledge. pp. 285, 288. ISBN 978-1-003-10060-7. 喺2 December 2023搵到.
- ↑ Morris, Benny; Kedar, Benjamin Z. (19 September 2022). "'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War". Middle Eastern Studies. 59 (5): 1–25 [2–3]. doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448. S2CID 252389726.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pappe, Ilan (2006). The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. Oxford: One World Books. ISBN 978-1-85168-467-0.
- ↑ Bardi, Ariel Sophia (March 2016). "The "Architectural Cleansing" of Palestine". American Anthropologist. 118 (1): 165–171. doi:10.1111/aman.12520.
- ↑ Abu-Lughod 2007.
- ↑ Hazkani, Shay (2019). Dear Palestine A Social History of the 1948 War. 史丹福大學出版社. ISBN 978-1-5036-2766-6.
- ↑ Warf, C.; Charles, G. (2020). Clinical Care for Homeless, Runaway and Refugee Youth: Intervention Approaches, Education and Research Directions. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-40675-2.
- ↑ Gerber, H. (2008). Remembering and Imagining Palestine: Identity and Nationalism from the Crusades to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-58391-7.
- ↑ Petersen-Overton, Kristofer J.; Schmidt, Johannes D.; Hersh, Jacques (27 September 2010). "3. Retooling Peace Philosophy: A Critical Look at Israel's Separation Strategy". 出自 Carter, Candice C. (編). Peace Philosophy in Action. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 49. doi:10.1057/9780230112995. ISBN 978-0-230-11299-5.
- ↑ Natour, Ghaleb (2015). "The Nakba—Flight and Expulsion of the Palestinians in 1948". 出自 Hoppe, Andreas (編). Catastrophes Views from Natural and Human Sciences. Springer. p. 81.
- ↑ Slater, Jerome (2020). Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917-2020. 牛津大學出版社. ISBN 978-0-19-045908-6.
- ↑ "Why Nakba is the Palestinians' most sombre day, in 100 and 300 words". BBC. 15 May 2018.
- ↑ Ibish, Hussein (14 May 2018). "A 'Catastrophe' That Defines Palestinian Identity". The Atlantic.
- ↑ McDowall, David; Palley, Claire (1987). The Palestinians. Minority Rights Group Report no 24. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-946690-42-8.
- ↑ Honaida Ghanim, Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, March 2009 Vol. 22, No. 1 pp.23-39 p.37
- ↑ Stern, Yoav (13 May 2008). "Palestinian refugees, Israeli left-wingers mark Nakba". Haaretz. Nakba 60 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期12 June 2008., BADIL Resource Center for Palestinian Residency and Refugee Rights; Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004, p. 270. ISBN 978-0-8133-4047-0
- ↑ Ghanim, Honaida (March 2009). "Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 22 (1): 23–39 [25–26]. doi:10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9. JSTOR 40608203. S2CID 144148068.
- ↑ Abu-Laban, Yasmeen; Bakan, Abigail B. (July 2022). "Anti-Palestinian Racism and Racial Gaslighting". The Political Quarterly. 93 (3): 508–516. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13166. S2CID 250507449.
- ↑ Abu-Lughod 2007, p. 3,8–9.
- ↑ Pedahzur, Ami; Perliger, Arie (2010). "The Consequences of Counterterrorist Policies in Israel". 出自 Crenshaw, Martha (編). The Consequences of Counterterrorism. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-87154-073-7.
- ↑ Nur-eldeen Masalha (1992). Expulsion of the Palestinians. Institute for Palestine Studies, this edition 2001, p. 175.
- ↑ Khalidi, Rashid (September 1998). Palestinian identity: the construction of modern national consciousness. 哥倫比亞大學出版社. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-231-10515-6.
- ↑ Gelber (2006). Palestine 1948. War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0.
- ↑ Matthew Hogan (2001). The 1948 Massacre at Deir Yassin Revisited.
- ↑ "Nakba Day: What happened in Palestine in 1948?". Al Jazeera. 15 May 2022.
- ↑ "Nakba survivors in Gaza mark 75 years of ongoing refugeehood, settler-colonialism and apartheid amid Israel's renewed military assault on the Strip". Relief Web. 15 May 2023.
- ↑ Masalha 2012, p. 11.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Golani, Motti; Manna, Adel (2011). Two sides of the coin: independence and Nakba, 1948: two narratives of the 1948 War and its outcome. Institute for Historical Justice and Reconciliation. p. 14. ISBN 978-90-8979-080-4.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Mori 2009.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Partner, Nancy (2008). "The Linguistic Turn along Post-Postmodern Borders: Israeli/Palestinian Narrative Conflict". New Literary History. 39 (4): 823–845. doi:10.1353/nlh.0.0065. JSTOR 20533118. S2CID 144556954.
- ↑ Schmemann, Serge (15 May 1998). "MIDEAST TURMOIL: THE OVERVIEW; 9 Palestinians Die in Protests Marking Israel's Anniversary". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. 原先內容歸檔喺5 March 2022. 喺7 April 2021搵到.
- ↑ Gladstone, Rick (15 May 2021). "An annual day of Palestinian grievance comes amid the upheaval". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. 原先內容歸檔喺15 May 2021. 喺15 May 2021搵到.
- ↑ Morris, Benny (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. 劍橋大學出版社. ISBN 978-0-521-81120-0.
- ↑ J.P.D. Dunbabin, The Post-Imperial Age: The Great Powers and the Wider World, Routledge 2014 ISBN 978-1-317-89293-9 pp.256-258.
- ↑ Morris, Benny (2022-09-19). Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War. Middle Eastern Studies. p. 1-25. doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448.
- ↑ Pittsburgh Press (May 1948). "British Halt Jerusalem Battle". UP. 喺17 December 2010搵到.
- ↑ Blomeley, Kristen (March 2005). "The 'new historians' and the origins of the Arab/Israeli conflict". Australian Journal of Political Science. 40 (1): 125–139. doi:10.1080/10361140500049487. S2CID 143673606.
- ↑ McGhee, George Crews (1997). On the frontline in the Cold War: an ambassador reports. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-275-95649-3.
- ↑ Stein, Leslie (2003). The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-97141-0.
- ↑ Kodmani-Darwish, p. 126; Féron, Féron, p. 94.
- ↑ "Overview". United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA). 喺29 October 2011搵到.
- ↑ Ian Black (26 November 2010). "Memories and maps keep alive Palestinian hopes of return". The Guardian.
- ↑ Shavit, Ari. "Survival of the Fittest? An Interview with Benny Morris" 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期5 September 2021.. Logos. Winter 2004
- ↑ Matas, David (2005). Aftershock: anti-zionism and anti-semitism. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp. 555–558. ISBN 978-1-55002-553-8.
- ↑ Benvenis'tî, Mêrôn (2002). Sacred landscape: the buried history of the Holy Land since 1948. 加州大學出版社. pp. 124–127. ISBN 978-0-520-23422-2.
- ↑ Benny Morris (21 February 2008). "Benny Morris on fact, fiction, & propaganda about 1948". The Irish Times, reported by Jeff Weintraub 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期7 December 2008.
- ↑ Human Rights Watch. "A Threshold Crossed," April 27, 2021. A Threshold Crossed.
- ↑ Amnesty International. "Israel's Apartheid against Palestinians: A Cruel System of Domination and a Crime against Humanity," February 1, 2022. Israel's Apartheid against Palestinians.
- ↑ Trigano, Shmuel (2019). "Deconstructing the Three Stages of the Nakba Myth". Jewish Political Studies Review. 30 (3/4): 45–54. JSTOR 26801117.
文獻
編輯- Abu-Lughod, Lila; Sa'di, Ahmad H. (2007). "Introduction: The Claims of Memory". 出自 Sa'di, Ahmad H.; Abu-Lughod, Lila (編). Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory. 哥倫比亞大學出版社. pp. 1–24. ISBN 978-0-231-13579-5. 喺2 December 2023搵到.
- Masalha, Nur (9 August 2012). The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-973-2. 喺2 April 2021搵到.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Mori, Mariko (July 2009). "Zionism and the Nakba: The Mainstream Narrative, the Oppressed Narratives, and the Israeli Collective Memory". 3 (1). 京都大學伊斯蘭研究所: 89–107. doi:10.14989/87465. hdl:2433/87465. S2CID 211515216.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)