城市
城市(粵拼:sing4 si5),又有嗌做都市(dou1 si5)、城(粵拼:seng4*2(白讀),sing4(文讀)),係聚落地一種,係政治、經濟、社會等人類活動最活躍嘅地方,因爲人口集中,所以城市地方人口多、人口密度高。
「城市」或者「都市」可以拆字來理解:「城」、「都」意味住城市有好大嘅社會、行政影響;「市」就有經濟意味。所以城市同鄉村、市鎮嘅區別往往在於大細[註 1]、人口密度[註 2]、緊要程度[註 3]、法定地位。
喺活動上,城市人口比較多從事第二產業、第三產業。喺形態上,中心機能集中嘅地方嗌做市區(再發達啲,就會喺市中心形成核心商業區),市區之外嘅週邊嗌做郊外。而家有城市膨脹現象,即係城市從市區蔓延到郊區,郊區急劇城市化,成個城市無序擴張。
概要
編輯從社會學角度嚟睇,城市係一個大範圍嘅人群共同體,喺呢個共同體入面,大部分人嘅社會活動都會受到成個共同體綜合協調,而呢種協調係遠遠超出個人日常生活嘅範圍。換句話講,城市嘅社會活動密度高過鄉下,而「市民意識」亦係城市社會同鄉下社會唔同嘅其中一個特徵。從行政角度嚟睇,城市係一類政區。現代社會可以話係城市時代,城市人口急速增加,城市影響力亦好大,就算唔住喺城市嘅人都會受到城市嘅影響。
大約喺前3000年,城市人口佔世界人口嘅比例差唔多係零;去到西曆100年嘅時候呢個比例仲未夠1%;1800年嘅時候大約係5%。不過,到咗1965年,城市人口已經佔全球人口三分二,顯示出近代急速嘅城市化趨勢,呢個比例仲有繼續上升嘅勢頭。呢種急速嘅城市化主要係由於大規模工業化同現代國家嘅形成。雖然城市係工商業發展嘅產物,但係一般定義城市仲要睇佢嘅社會發展成果──即係形成咗市民共同體,喺呢個共同體入面,個人同社會有密切關係,大家一齊參與社會,而唔係田園牧歌式嘅生活。
不過,對於行政嚟講,定義城市仲係需要啲量化嘅標準。因為人口密度高同聚居規模大係城市同鄉村嘅主要唔同,所以通常呢啲標準會係常住人口、人囗密度、居住密度、職業結構比例等等[1]。而唔同國家嘅具體標準會唔一樣。喺中國大陸,行政上分咗「鄉村」同「城鎮」,而「城鎮」又再分做「城區」同「鎮區」。所謂「城鎮」係根據政區建制嚟劃分嘅地區,而「城區」嘅政區基礎係市轄區同唔設區嘅市,而規定係「街道辦事處所轄嘅居民委員會地區、以及城市公共設施、居住設施等連得到嘅其他居委會、村委會地區」,而「鎮區」嘅政區基礎係建制鎮,規定係「鎮所轄嘅居民委員會地區、以及鎮嘅公共設施、居住設施等連得到嘅其他村委會地區」。此外,「鎮區」仲可以包括「常住人口三千人以上嘅獨立工礦區、開發區、科研單位、大專院校、農場、林場等特殊地區」[2]。
各國對城市嘅定義,有啲有明確人口下限,有啲就無[3]。無明確下限嘅有85個國家,當中有20個國家只將首都定為城市,有27個國家係靠行政指定,有38個國家以重要程度嚟決定[3]。實際上,好多國家可以通過法定地位睇出嗰度係咪屬於城市地區,例如喺韓國,基本上市部係城市、郡部係農村。而有明確人口下限嘅國家有81個,呢個下限大概係喺2000到10000人之間,當中以2000同5000人做下限嘅國家最多,分別有23同19個[3]。例如美國唔同州對城市人口下限有唔同規定,好似麻省係定萬二人,而馬利蘭州係定三百人[4],但整體嚟講係以2500人做標準[3][5];法國就以2000人做下限[3][5];日本以5萬人做下限[5][1]。喺所有國家入面,最低下限係烏干達,係200人,最高係中華人民共和國,係10萬人[5]。
聚落形態
編輯世界大部份地方,差唔多所有城市都有一個市中心。響一啲好大嘅城市,佢週邊都係市郊,帶有鄉村特色,有時都會叫埋做城市,所以,有時會介定城市爲「市中心」嗰部分。一般嚟講,城市都係由住宅區、工業區、同商業區組成嘅行政單位,有時可能佔好大面積。一個城市好大部份係屋嚟,唔同部分由基建連埋,好似馬路、地下鐵,同埋有唔同嘅交通路綫穿梭。城市未發展嘅地方,好可能只係淨返河同湖。城市研究一般都係人文地理嘅範疇。
城市同市鎮嘅分別
編輯城市同市鎮,唔同地方有唔同理解。有一啲會以某一個人口大小作分野。有一啲係用法定地位去分。有一啲係一個市鎮係會管幾個市鎮,佢嘅經濟同行政地位喺佢嗰區係最大嘅。雖然城市係包括好多個市郊市鎮,但係唔係用來形容幾個城市連埋嘅地區。
世界城市系統
編輯隨住全球經濟、政治、科技同文化嘅緊密聯繫(即係所謂嘅「全球化」過程),城市喺跨國事務中開始扮演主導角色,超越咗由國家政府進行嘅國際關係嘅局限。[6][7][8] 呢個而家再次興起嘅現象,可以追溯返去絲綢之路、腓尼基人同希臘城邦,再到漢薩同盟同其他城市聯盟。[9][10][11] 而家以高速互聯網基礎設施為基礎嘅資訊經濟,令到世界各地可以即時進行電訊通訊,有效消除咗國際市場同其他世界經濟高層元素,以至個人通訊同大眾媒體之間嘅距離。[12]
全球城市
編輯全球城市,又叫做世界城市,係貿易、銀行、金融、創新同市場嘅重要中心。[13][14] Saskia Sassen喺佢1991年嘅著作《The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo》中使用咗「全球城市」呢個詞,用嚟形容一個城市嘅權力、地位同世界性,而唔係單單指佢嘅規模。[15] 根據呢個睇城市嘅角度,我哋可以將世界上嘅城市進行等級排名。[16] 全球城市構成咗全球等級嘅頂層,通過佢哋嘅經濟同政治影響力發揮指揮同控制作用。全球城市可能係因為早期轉型到後工業社會而達到佢哋嘅地位,[17] 又或者係透過慣性,令佢哋維持咗喺工業時代嘅主導地位。[18] 呢種排名體現咗一種新興嘅論述,認為城市係同一種理想類型嘅變體,必須喺全球範圍內互相競爭先至可以達到繁榮。[19][20]
呢個概念嘅批評者指出,權力同交流嘅領域係唔同嘅。「全球城市」呢個詞受到經濟因素嘅嚴重影響,因此可能唔會考慮到其他方面都好重要嘅地方。例如,Paul James就認為呢個詞喺關注金融系統方面有「簡化同偏頗」嘅問題。[21]
跨國企業同銀行會喺全球城市設立總部,並喺呢個環境下進行大部分業務。[22] 美國公司主導咗國際法律同工程市場,並喺最大嘅外國全球城市設立分支機構。[23]
大城市嘅財富分配都好極端,有好大嘅貧富懸殊。[24] 移民政策嘅規定促進咗對來自貧窮地區嘅低技能同高技能移民工人嘅剝削。[25][26][27] 喺就業期間,移民工人可能要面對唔公平嘅工作條件,包括加班、低工資同工作場所缺乏安全保障。[28]
跨國活動
編輯而家城市越嚟越多獨立於佢哋所屬嘅國家之外參與世界政治活動。呢種現象嘅早期例子包括姊妹城市關係,同埋喺歐盟內部推廣多層級管治作為實現歐洲一體化嘅技術。[7][29][30] 包括漢堡、布拉格、阿姆斯特丹、海牙同倫敦金融城等城市喺布魯塞爾都有自己嘅歐盟代表處。[31][32][33]
而家嘅城市居民越嚟越多係跨國移民,佢哋一隻腳喺舊家鄉,另一隻腳喺新居所(通過電訊甚至係旅遊)。[34]
全球治理
編輯城市透過唔同方式參與全球治理,包括加入傳播規範同規則嘅全球網絡。喺全球層面,聯合城市同地方政府組織(UCLG)係城市嘅重要傘式組織;而喺區域同國家層面,歐洲城市組織、亞洲主要城市網絡21、加拿大市政聯盟、美國全國城市聯盟同美國市長會議都發揮類似嘅作用。[35][36] UCLG負責制定《文化21議程》,呢個係一個推廣可持續發展嘅文化政策計劃,亦都組織咗好多會議同報告嚟推動呢個計劃。[37]
自從《21世紀議程》通過之後,網絡喺環保領域尤其係氣候變化方面變得特別普遍。環境城市網絡包括C40城市氣候領導小組、聯合國全球契約城市項目、碳中和城市聯盟(CNCA)、市長盟約同市長契約,[38] ICLEI – 可持續發展地方政府、同埋轉型城鎮網絡。[35][36]
具有世界政治地位嘅城市係倡議團體、非政府組織、說客、教育機構、情報機構、軍事承包商、信息技術公司同其他對世界政策制定有利益嘅團體嘅聚會地點。因此,佢哋亦都係象徵性抗議嘅場所。[10][註 4]
相關嘅電子遊戲類
編輯睇埋
編輯註
編輯攷
編輯- ↑ 1.0 1.1 中國社區建設展示中心:城市社區的主要特徵[失咗效嘅鏈]
- ↑ 據2006年3月10號中國國家統計局發佈嘅《關於統計上劃分城鄉的暫行規定》
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 中國評論學術出版社:世界各國城市化水平對比問題
- ↑ "Census BureauPlaces" (PDF). 原著 (PDF)喺2014年10月31號歸檔. 喺2014年6月17號搵到.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 東方早報:理性看待和實施「撤縣設市」[失咗效嘅鏈]
- ↑ Abrahamson (2004), pp. 2–4. "The linkages among cities cutting across nations became a global network. It is important to note here that the key nodes in the international system are (global) cities, not nations. [...] Once the linkages among cities became a global network, nations became dependent upon their major cities for connections to the rest of the world."
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 3–4. "Instead, the picture is becoming more detailed and differentiated, with a growing number of sub-national entities, cities, city-regions and regions, becoming more visible in their own right, either individually, or collectively as networks, by, more or less tentatively, stepping out of the territorial canvas and hierarchical institutional hegemony of the state. Prominent and well-known cities, and those regions with a strong sense of identity and often a quest for more autonomy, have been the most enthusiastic, as they began to be represented beyond state borders by high-profile city mayors and some regional leaders with political courage and agency. [...] This, then, became part of the much bigger political project of the European Union (EU), which has offered a particularly supportive environment for international engagement by—and among—subnational governments as part of its inherent integrationist agenda."
- ↑ Gupta et al. (2015), 5–11. "Current globalization, characterized by hyper capitalism and technological revolutions, is understood as the growing intensity of economic, demographic, social, political, cultural and environmental interactions worldwide, leading to increasing interdependence and homogenization of ideologies, production and consumption patterns and lifestyles (Pieterse 1994; Sassen 1998). [...] Decentralization processes have increased city-level capacities of city authorities to develop and implement local social and developmental policies. Cities as homes of the rich, and of powerful businesses, banks, stock markets, UN agencies and NGOs, are the location from which global to local decision-making occurs (e.g. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Hong Kong, São Paulo)."
- ↑ Herrschel & Newman (2017), pp. 9–10. "The merchants of the Hanseatic League, for instance, enjoyed substantial trading privileges as a result of inter-city diplomacy and collective agreements within the networks (Lloyd 2002), as well as with larger powers, such as states. That way, the League could negotiate 'extra-territorial' legal spaces with special privileges, such as the 'German Steelyard' in the port of London (Schofield 2012). This special status was granted and guaranteed by the English king as part of an agreement between the state and a foreign city association."
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 引用錯誤 無效嘅
<ref>
標籤;無文字提供畀叫做CalderFreytas2009
嘅參照 - ↑ Curtis (2016), p. 5.
- ↑ Kaplan (2004), pp. 115–133.
- ↑ Engel, Jerome S.; Berbegal-Mirabent, Jasmina; Piqué, Josep M. (2018). "The renaissance of the city as a cluster of innovation". Cogent Business & Management. 5 (1): 1532777. doi:10.1080/23311975.2018.1532777. hdl:10419/206125.
- ↑ Jacobs, Andrew J.; Orum, Anthony M. (2023). "Global City". The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Studies. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1002/9781118568446.eurs0514. ISBN 978-1118568453. S2CID 240985764.
- ↑ Sassen, Saskia (1991). The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期16 March 2015. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-07063-6
- ↑ John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, "World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action", International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 6, no. 3 (1982): 319
- ↑ Abrahamson (2004), p. 4. "The formerly major industrial cities that were most able quickly and thoroughly to transform themselves into the new postindustrial mode became the leading global cities—the centers of the new global system."
- ↑ Kaplan et al. (2004), p. 88.
- ↑ 引用錯誤 無效嘅
<ref>
標籤;無文字提供畀叫做Ward2008
嘅參照 - ↑ 引用錯誤 無效嘅
<ref>
標籤;無文字提供畀叫做Wachsmuth2014
嘅參照 - ↑ James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge. pp. 28, 30. ISBN 978-1315765747. 原先內容歸檔喺1 March 2020. 喺20 December 2017搵到.
Against those writers who, by emphasizing the importance of financial exchange systems, distinguish a few special cities as 'global cities'—commonly London, Paris, New York and Tokyo—we recognize the uneven global dimensions of all the cities that we study. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is a globalizing city, though perhaps more significantly in cultural than economic terms. And so is Dili globalizing, the small and 'insignificant' capital of Timor Leste—except this time it is predominantly in political terms...
- ↑ Kaplan (2004), 99–106.
- ↑ Kaplan (2004), pp. 91–95. "The United States is also dominant in providing high-quality, global engineering-design services, accounting for approximately 50 percent of the world's total exports. The disproportionate presence of these U.S.-headquartered firms is attributable to the U.S. role in overseas automobile production, the electronics and petroleum industries, and various kinds of construction, including work on the country's numerous overseas air and navy military bases."
- ↑ Kaplan (2004), pp. 90–92.
- ↑ Samers, Michael (2002-06-28). "Immigration and the Global City Hypothesis: Towards an Alternative Research Agenda". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 26 (2): 389–3402. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00386. ISSN 0309-1317. 原先內容歸檔喺2020-03-01.
And not withstanding some major world cities that do not have comparatively high levels of immigration, like Tokyo, it may in fact be the presence of such large-scale immigrant economic 'communities' (with their attendant global financial remittances and their ability to incubate small business growth, rather than their complementarity to producer services employment) which partially distinguishes mega-cities from other more nationally oriented urban centres.
- ↑ Willis, Jane; Datta, Kavita; Evans, Yara; Herbert, Joanna; May, John; McIlwane, Cathy (2010). Wills, Jane (編). Global cities at work: new migrant divisions of labour. London: Pluto Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-7453-2799-0.
These apparently rather different takes on London's 'global city' status are of course not so far removed from one another as they may first appear. Holding them together is the figure of the migrant worker. The reliance of London's financial institutions and business services industries on the continuing flow of highly skilled labour from overseas is now well known (Beaverstock and Smith 1996). Less well known is the extent to which London's economy as a whole is now dependent upon the labour power of low-paid workers from across the world.
- ↑ Sanderson, Matthew R; Derudder, Ben; Timberlake, Michael; Witlox, Frank (June 2015). "Are world cities also world immigrant cities? An international, cross-city analysis of global centrality and immigration". International Journal of Comparative Sociology. 56 (3–4): 173–197. doi:10.1177/0020715215604350. ISSN 0020-7152. S2CID 153828266.
- ↑ Latham et al. 2009, pp. 49–50.
- ↑ Charlie Jeffery, "Sub-National Authorities and European Integration: Moving Beyond the Nation-State? 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期3 November 2018.", presented at the Fifth Biennial International Conference of the European Community Studies Association, 29 May–1 June 1997, Seattle, US.
- ↑ Jing Pan, "The Role of Local Government in Shaping and Influencing International Policy Frameworks 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期2017-10-10.", PhD thesis accepted at De Montfort University, April 2014.
- ↑ Herrschel & Newman (2017), p. "In Europe, the EU provides incentives and institutional frameworks for multiple new forms of city and regional networking and lobbying, including at the international EU level. But a growing number of cities and regions also seek to 'go it alone' by establishing their own representations in Brussels, either individually or in shared accommodation, as the base for European lobbying."
- ↑ Marks, Gary; Haesly, Richard; Mbaye, Heather A.D. (Autumn 2002). "What Do Subnational Offices Think They Are Doing in Brussels?" (PDF). Regional & Federal Studies. 12 (3): 1–23. doi:10.1080/714004755. ISSN 1359-7566. S2CID 154556467. 原先內容歸檔 (PDF)喺2018-01-28.
- ↑ Carola Hein, "Cities (and regions) within a city: subnational representations and the creation of European imaginaries in Brussels 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期16 November 2018."; International Journal of the Urban Sciences 19(1), 2015. See also websites of individual city embassies cited therein, including Hanse Office 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期1 January 2017. (Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein) and City of London "City Office in Brussels 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期2017-08-16."; and CoR's [cor.europa.eu/en/regions/Documents/regional-offices.xls spreadsheet of regional offices] in Brussels.
- ↑ Latham et al. 2009, pp. 45–47.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Bouteligier, Sofie (2013). "Inequality in new global governance arrangements: the North–South divide in transnational municipal networks". Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research. 26 (3): 251–267. doi:10.1080/13511610.2013.771890. ISSN 1351-1610. S2CID 143765511. 原先內容歸檔喺2017-10-10.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Herrschel & Newman (2017), p. 82.
- ↑ Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, "Global Cultural Governance Policy 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔,歸檔日期29 April 2021."; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture; London: Ashgate, 2013.
- ↑ 而家改名做全球市長盟約;睇: "Global Covenant of Mayors – Compact of Mayors". 原著喺14 October 2016歸檔. 喺13 October 2016搵到.