螢火蟲
螢火蟲(粵音:jing4 fo2 cung4;日文:
螢火蟲 | ||||||||||||
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有隻螢火蟲喺黑暗當中發光。
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物種分類 | ||||||||||||
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螢火蟲同第啲甲蟲一樣係行完全變態嘅,一世蟲分四個階段:螢火蟲生命一開始嗰陣係蛋,由蛋度孵咗出嚟之後係(個樣同成蟲爭好遠嘅)幼蟲,幼蟲生到咁上下就會結蛹;個蛹過咗若干時間之後,隻成蟲就會由個蛹嗰度捐出嚟;好多種物種嘅螢火蟲啲成蟲都曉發光(螢火),佢哋會用呢啲光嚟求偶[2]-唔同物種嘅螢火蟲,發出嚟嘅光都唔同樣,所以螢火蟲可以靠啲光得知「同自己同種嘅異性螢火蟲喺邊」;亦都有部份嘅螢火蟲啲乸會特登發放出似第啲種嘅螢火蟲嘅光,想引誘第啲種嘅螢火蟲公埋嚟,然後食呢啲螢火蟲公落肚;而無論公定乸,啲螢火蟲通常做完交配繁殖嘅工作之後冇幾耐就會死[3]。
螢火蟲對人類嘅文化有一定嘅影響:有唔少人都覺得螢火蟲細細隻識發光噉好得意,會作創作品講螢火蟲,例如知步里工作室嘅《再見螢火蟲》就好出名;除此之外,螢火蟲亦都會被人攞嚟做旗艦物種-因為唔少人都鍾意螢火蟲,所以會想保育佢哋,而生態學家就會運用呢點,用「呢笪土地有螢火蟲」嚟做賣點做生態保育上嘅宣傳[4]。
基本描述
編輯形態
編輯喺形態上,螢火蟲有相當嘅內部差異,喺色水、形狀以至大細上都可以幾唔同:螢火蟲多數都呈啡或者綠噉嘅色,而講大細嘅話,最大嘅螢火蟲物種可以去到成 10 cm 咁長[5];螢火蟲有相當嘅兩性異形,即係公同乸明顯唔同樣-好多種螢火蟲物種都有幼蟲形乸,即係啲成蟲乸個樣生到好似幼蟲噉,通常冇翼唔識飛(唔似得公噉有翼識飛),不過會有一啲幼蟲冇嘅特徵,例如係複眼噉,令到專家(同啲螢火蟲公)能夠分開邊啲係成蟲乸邊啲係幼蟲[6]。
多數最出名嘅螢火蟲物種,都係喺夜晚出沒兼且識發光嘅。亦有一部份嘅物種興喺日頭出沒,日頭出沒嘅螢火蟲物種多數唔識發光,除非佢哋係一啲「興日頭活動但會留喺陰暗地方」嘅物種[2]。
生命週期
編輯螢火蟲同第啲甲蟲一樣,係行完全變態嘅,即係話佢哋一世蟲有蛋、幼蟲、蛹同成蟲四個階段[2]。
- 蛋:螢火蟲乸交配咗之後,就會搵地方生蛋。佢哋會將受咗精嘅蛋生喺地面或者泥土入面冇幾深嘅地方,一般零舍鍾意潮濕嘅泥土,可以係一粒一粒噉生或者成竇成竇噉生嘅;每隻乸「一次生幾多粒蛋」就視物種而定,據講某啲物種每隻乸可以生到成 500 粒蛋咁多[7];螢火蟲啲蛋通常係波噉形,而有啲物種嘅螢火蟲連蛋都會發光[8]。無論係邊個物種,螢火蟲蛋一般會喺三至四個禮拜內孵化[2][9]。
- 幼蟲:螢火蟲一生出嚟係隻個樣同成蟲好唔同嘅幼蟲:幼蟲嘅主要目標係要猛咁食嘢,儲起啲能量;螢火蟲幼蟲又有被人叫做「放光蟲」,簡眼(唔似得成蟲噉有複眼),冚唪唥都識發光;螢火蟲幼蟲通常夜行同食肉,喺夜晚嗰陣會由泥度捐出嚟獵食蝸牛、鼻涕蟲同埋第啲昆蟲,有啲甚至會同類相食[10],而據講有部份物種嘅幼蟲捉到獵物嗰陣時,下顎會直接將消化用嘅液體注入獵物身體(即場消化隻獵物),食落肚之前就令獵物溶化。就係噉,隻幼蟲會一路食嘢儲起能量,經歷幾次嘅脫皮生到咁上下就會結蛹,多數物種都會以幼蟲嘅形態過冬,喺冬天嗰陣會用各種嘅方法保暖,好似係捐落深啲嘅地底度或者匿入去樹皮入面... 呀噉;喺某啲物種入面,幼蟲時期可以維持超過一年咁耐[11]。
- 蛹:螢火蟲幼蟲通常會喺春天嗰陣出返嚟食嘢,然後喺春天尾橛嗰陣結蛹。螢火蟲捐入泥度,喺泥入面起間「房」,喺間房裏面結蛹,又有啲會喺樹上面結蛹。同(例如)蝴蝶一樣,隻螢火蟲會喺個蛹入面分解,發生好多生物化學作用,經過 10 日左右至幾個禮拜之後,(除非係幼蟲形乸)佢最後會變成一隻同幼蟲個樣好唔同嘅成蟲[11]。
- 成蟲:成蟲最重要嘅工作係搵嘢食同伴侶;成蟲食乜係睇物種嘅,有啲螢火蟲物種成蟲會好似幼蟲噉食肉,又有啲係食花蜜同花粉,又有啲物種成蟲係冇口器嘅-呢啲冇口器嘅螢火蟲係食唔到嘢嘅,所以佢哋一由個蛹捐咗出嚟就唔會再食嘢,要做嘅係有咁快得咁快去搵伴侶交配傳宗接代,交配完冇幾耐就會監生餓死[註 2][12]。
上述噉嘅過程會係噉重複,形成螢火蟲嘅生命循環。
發光
編輯「識發光」可以話係螢火蟲最出名嘅特徵。
化學機制
編輯螢火蟲可以話係生物發光其中一個最出名嘅例子。
螢火蟲體內有專門發光嘅器官,呢啲器官通常係位於隻蟲嘅腹部落啲嘅地方。喺呢啲器官當中,喺螢光素酶(luciferase)呢種酵素同埋鎂離子(Mg2+)嘅催化下,螢火蟲身上嘅螢光素(luciferin)同氧氣(O2;由身體嘅唞氣用器官提供)以及三磷酸腺苷(ATP)會進行化學反應,呢場化學反應會產生出好似下圖入面條化學式嘅右手邊嗰啲化學物[註 3]-後者會發光,於是隻蟲嘅下腹就會發光[15][16]
螢火蟲產生嘅光係所謂嘅「凍光」,冇任何嘅紅外線或者紫外光喺裏面,啲光嘅波長會喺 510 至 670 nm 之間,呈黃、綠或者淡紅噉嘅色,當中美國嘅藍鬼螢火蟲(Phausis reticulata)就出嗮名會發出遠睇似係藍白噉色、但近睇綠色嘅光[17][18]。
進化功用
編輯由進化論嘅角度睇,發光對螢火蟲嚟講有好多唔同嘅好處:
- 求偶:對於螢火蟲成蟲嚟講,發光最重要嘅功能係幫助求偶[19][20]。
- 首先,唔同螢火蟲物種發光嘅方式都唔同-螢火蟲發光嗰時喺「一吓光維持幾耐」、光嘅色水、發光時機、光閃頻率、飛得幾高以至飛行方向等方面都可以有物種同品種之間嘅差異,所以如果笪地方有多過一種物種嘅螢火蟲住,發光有助啲螢火蟲搵同類嚟求偶[21][22];搵著唔同物種嘅螢火蟲嚟求偶唔會產生到後代,淨係會嘥時間精神,所以呢種搵同類做法有助啲螢火蟲慳返啲時間精神[23]。
- 螢火蟲响求偶嘅過程裏面,仲可以運用發光嚟同同類通訊;據講穩定放光、閃吓閃吓以至化學訊號等,都可以攞嚟向同類傳達「我喺邊個位置」或者「我係咪同你屬同一種物種」等嘅資訊[註 4][24];喺阜提努螢(Photinus)呢個屬當中,典型嘅求偶過程係啲唔識飛嘅乸發閃光,話畀啲公知自己喺邊,而啲有翼識飛嘅公就會飛嚟飛去搵乸交配[25]。
- 獵食:有部份螢火蟲物種(尤其係妖掃螢屬)啲成蟲乸會利用發光嚟獵食;呢啲螢火蟲乸曉模仿第啲物種嘅螢火蟲乸發出嘅光,呢啲異種螢火蟲公見到啲光,就會以為係同種嘅螢火蟲乸飛埋去,然後隻發光嘅螢火蟲乸就會捉嗰隻異種螢火蟲公嚟食;呢啲噉嘅螢火蟲乸有咗個花名,叫致命女郎螢火蟲(femme fatale firefly)[26]。
- 警戒作用:螢火蟲嘅幼蟲冚唪唥都識發光;幼蟲冇生殖能力,所以幼蟲發光明顯唔係為咗求偶;根據用訊號理論(一套有關「進化同生物之間嘅訊號會點互相影響」嘅理論)做嘅研究,幼蟲發光起到警戒作用-好多螢火蟲身上都有一啲難食甚至有毒嘅化合物,所以獵食者將呢啲蟲食咗落肚好多時會唔舒服,如果隻螢火蟲唔識發光望落冇乜特徵嘅,獵食者比較大機會會唔記得食過隻蟲,但如果隻蟲識發光(有種好樣眼嘅特徵),噉獵食者下次再見到螢火蟲嗰陣比較大機會會記得「上次就係食咗呢種蟲搞到唔舒服」;噉即係話發光變咗做種訊號,話畀獵食者知「呢隻蟲好難食或者有毒」[27]。
... 呀噉。
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一隻螢火蟲乸自己喺度發光。
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一段展示螢火蟲嘅短片
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兩隻歐洲放光蟲喺黑暗當中交配。
生態保育
編輯螢火蟲同好多生物一樣,都會受到人類活動嘅影響,例如:
- 人類做各種建設嗰陣,往往要攞土地用,粗暴啲嘅甚至仲會放火燒森林,諗住清空笪地嚟用,噉樣就有可能搞到螢火蟲喪失既有嘅棲息地[28];
- 人類好多時會為咗農業周圍噴殺蟲水或者除草劑,呢啲噉嘅化合物可能會傷害螢火蟲,又或者會殺死螢火蟲嘅獵食對象,搞到螢火蟲要搵嘢食難咗[29];
- 除此之外,螢火蟲多數都係靠發光嚟求偶嘅,而人類發放出嚟嘅各種人造光(好似係街燈呀噉)會造成光污染[30][31],呢啲光有可能會(例如)擾亂喺度飛嚟飛去搵乸交配嘅螢火蟲公,間接阻礙咗佢哋傳宗接代[32]。
喺 2015 年,有科學家做咗份研究,首次噉將人造光對螢火蟲嘅負面影響量化噉展示出嚟:嗰份研究喺 4 年之間觀察住一批螢火蟲,並且提供咗證據指出,人造嘅光令到嗰批螢火蟲嘅數量跌咗;對各物種嘅螢火蟲做嘅研究表示,有好幾種物種嘅螢火蟲都面臨絕種嘅威脅[33][34]。因為噉,有唔少生態學同相關領域嘅科學家喺度嘗試做更深入嘅研究,想知點樣保育螢火蟲。
旗艦物種
編輯螢火蟲一樣出名嘅嘢係會被人攞嚟做旗艦物種:旗艦物種係生態保育上嘅一個概念,指一啲受人類歡迎嘅生物物種,可以用嚟保護周邊嘅物種。
舉例說明,想像家陣有位生態學家想搞生態保育,佢需要保育幾種物種嘅蛇同蜘蛛,因為呢幾種物種有重要嘅生態價值(例如係會捕食某啲害蟲);但呢位生態學家心知,一般人普遍都唔鍾意蛇同蜘蛛,又唔似得生態學家噉理解到呢啲蛇同蜘蛛嘅生態價值,所以如果佢用「保護啲蛇同蜘蛛」為名搞生態保育嘅話,應該難吸引啲人捐錢;不過咁啱得咁橋,呢啲蛇同蜘蛛住嗰笪地有一種好靚、好得人鍾意嘅蝴蝶;於是位生態學家就改吓個做法,以「保護靚靚蝴蝶」為名搞生態保育,等啲人樂意啲捐錢;喺呢種情況下,嗰種蝴蝶就係一種旗艦物種-受人鍾意、可以攞嚟做宣傳嘅物種,被生態學家攞嚟保護啲唔受人歡迎(但可能好重要)嘅物種[29]。
有生態學家指,螢火蟲喺人類文化當中嘅形象幾好(睇下面),可以攞嚟做旗艦物種[4]。
生物分類
編輯根據對化石嘅研究,螢火蟲最起碼白堊紀後半橛(1 億年至 6,600 萬年前)嗰時經已存在,嗰啲螢火蟲化石有明顯嘅發光器官[35],而根據對基因組嘅分析,呢啲遠古螢火蟲祖先係發綠色光嘅[36]。要留意嘅係,「放光蟲」呢隻詞成日畀人攞嚟指螢火蟲,但嚴格嚟講「放光蟲」唔係一個精確嘅科學詞語:要睇一隻生物係咪螢火蟲,係要睇基因嘅,而唔係齋靠睇佢「識唔識發光」,事實係有好多種物種嘅螢火蟲都係唔識發光嘅[37]。
根據 2010 年代尾做嘅研究,螢火蟲樖進化樹如下[38]:
Coleoptera |
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文化影響
編輯喺西方世界嘅文化當中,螢火蟲嘅形象普遍都係正面嘅:西人喺古典時代(古希臘同古羅馬)嗰時已經留意到螢火蟲嘅存在;佢哋好多時都留意到,螢火蟲嘅生命稍縱即逝,發幾日光跟住就死,令佢哋諗起好多嘢-例如係童年、死亡、精靈、恐懼、愛情以及心靈嘅短暫性呀噉[39][40]。淨係講英文嘅話,有唔少英文作家都有講到螢火蟲[41],例子可以睇吓廿世紀初美國詩人佛洛斯特(Robert Frost)嘅作品《Fireflies in the Garden》(粵譯:花園入面嘅螢火蟲)噉[42]。
螢光蟲喺東方文化裏面都有返咁上下正面,包括
- 喺日本文化裏面,螢光蟲(片假名:ホタル;日羅:hotaru;和製漢字:蛍)有一定嘅地位:自古以嚟,日本人就不嬲都好鍾意螢火蟲,會用畫同埋俳句等嘅文化產物描繪螢火蟲嘅形象;對日本人嚟講,螢火蟲可以話係夏天嘅一個象徵[43],而喺夏天嗰陣「走去森林度睇同捉螢火蟲」係現代日本大人同細路都鍾意做嘅活動之一[44][45]。亦可以睇吓知步里工作室喺 1988 年出嘅著名電影《再見螢火蟲》(日文:火垂るの墓)。
- 喺粵文化當中,螢火蟲嘅形象都有出現,例如廣東話入面有句噉嘅說話[46]:
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睇埋
編輯文獻
編輯- Branham, M. A., & Wenzel, J. W. (2003). The origin of photic behavior and the evolution of sexual communication in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) (PDF). Cladistics, 19(1), 1-22.
- Lewis, S. M., & Cratsley, C. K. (2008). Flash signal evolution, mate choice, and predation in fireflies (PDF). Annu. Rev. Entomol., 53, 293-321.
- (香港繁體) 《再見螢火蟲:香港螢火蟲導賞手冊》,香港昆蟲學會,ISBN 978-988-17797-4-8
註釋
編輯引述
編輯- ↑ HowStuffWorks "How do fireflies light up?". Science.howstuffworks.com (19 January 2001).
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Lewis, Sara (26 April 2016). Silent Sparks: The Wondrous World of Fireflies. Princeton University Press. p. 17.
- ↑ In fireflies, flightless females lose out on gifts from males.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Hagen, Oskar; Santos, Raphael Machado; Schlindwein, Marcelo Nivert; Viviani, Vadim Ravara (2015-01-14). "Artificial Night Lighting Reduces Firefly (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) Occurrence in Sorocaba, Brazil". Advances in Entomology. 03 (1): 24.
- ↑ This giant firefly looks even weirder in the light. Australian Geographic.
- ↑ Lau, T.F.; Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (2006). "Sexual dimorphism in the compound eye of Rhagophthalmus ohbai (Coleoptera: Rhagophthalmidae): Morphology and ultrastructure". Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology. 9: 19-30.
- ↑ Firefly Life Cycle & Habitat | Facts About Fireflies. Orkin.
- ↑ FACTS ABOUT FIREFLIES. firefly.org.
- ↑ The Firefly Life Cycle.
- ↑ Marshall, Michael (22 February 2020). "Why the lights are going out for fireflies". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 About Fireflies. www.xerces.org
- ↑ What Do Fireflies Eat? | All About Fireflies.
- ↑ How and why do fireflies light up?. Scientific Americans.
- ↑ McLean, Miriam; Buck, John; Hanson, Frank E. (1972). "Culture and Larval Behavior of Photurid Fireflies". The American Midland Naturalist. University of Notre Dame. 87 (1): 133-145.
- ↑ Lewis, Sara M.; Cratsley, Christopher K. (January 2008). "Flash Signal Evolution, Mate Choice, and Predation in Fireflies". Annual Review of Entomology. 53 (1): 293-321.
- ↑ Day, John (2009). "Beetle bioluminescence: a genetic and enzymatic research review". In Meyer-Rochow, V.B. Bioluminescence in Focus. Research Signpost: Kerala. pp. 325-355.
- ↑ Frick-Ruppert, Jennifer E.; Rosen, Joshua J. (2008). "Morphology and Behavior of Phausis Reticulata (Blue Ghost Firefly)". Journal of the North Carolina Academy of Science. 124 (4): 139-47.
- ↑ Branchini, Bruce R.; Southworth, Tara L.; Salituro, Leah J.; Fontaine, Danielle M.; Oba, Yuichi (2017). "Cloning of the Blue Ghost (Phausis reticulata) Luciferase Reveals a Glowing Source of Green Light". Photochemistry and Photobiology. 93 (2): 473-478.
- ↑ Martin, Gavin J.; Branham, Marc A.; Whiting, Michael F.; Bybee, Seth M. (February 2017). "Total evidence phylogeny and the evolution of adult bioluminescence in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 107: 564-575.
- ↑ Hopkins, Juhani; Baudry, Gautier; Candolin, Ulrika; Kaitala, Arja (2015). "I'm sexy and I glow it: female ornamentation in a nocturnal capital breeder". Biology Letters. 11 (10): 20150599.
- ↑ Stanger-Hall, Kathrin F.; Lloyd, James E. (March 2015). "Flash signal evolution in Photinus fireflies: Character displacement and signal exploitation in a visual communication system". Evolution. 69 (3): 666-682.
- ↑ Gullan, P. J.; Cranston, P. S. (2014). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 121-122.
- ↑ Stanger-Hall, K.F.; Lloyd, J.E.; Hillis, D.M. (2007). "Phylogeny of North American fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): implications for the evolution of light signals". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 45 (1): 33-49.
- ↑ De Cock, R.; Matthysen, E. (2005). "Sexual communication by pheromones in a firefly, Phosphaenus hemipterus (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". Animal Behaviour. 70 (4): 807-818.
- ↑ Branham, M. (February 2003). "The origin of photic behavior and the evolution of sexual communication in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". Cladistics. 19 (1): 1-22.
- ↑ Why some fireflies become femme fatales in their race for survival.
- ↑ Branham, Marc A.; Wenzel, John W. (December 2001). "The Evolution of Bioluminescence in Cantharoids (Coleoptera: Elateroidea)". The Florida Entomologist. 84 (4): 565.
- ↑ Sala, Osvaldo E.; Chapin, F. Stuart; Iii; Armesto, Juan J.; Berlow, Eric; Bloomfield, Janine; Dirzo, Rodolfo; Huber-Sanwald, Elisabeth; Huenneke, Laura F. (2000-03-10). "Global Biodiversity Scenarios for the Year 2100". Science. 287 (5459): 1770-1774.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Fallon, Candace; Hoyle, Sarah; Lewis, Sara; et al. (2019). "Conserving the Jewels of the Night: Guidelines for Protecting Fireflies in the United States and Canada" (PDF). The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Portland, Oregon. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
- ↑ Owens, Avalon C. S.; Lewis, Sara M. (2021). "Narrow‐spectrum artificial light silences female fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 14 (2): 199-210.
- ↑ Lloyd, James E.; Wing, Steven R.; Hongtrakul, Tawatchai (1989). "Ecology, Flashes, and Behavior of Congregating Thai Fireflies". Biotropica. 21 (4): 373.
- ↑ Viviani, Vadim Ravara; Rocha, Mayra Yamazaki; Hagen, Oskar (June 2010). "Fauna de besouros bioluminescentes (Coleoptera: Elateroidea: Lampyridae; Phengodidae, Elateridae) nos municípios de Campinas, Sorocaba-Votorantim e Rio Claro-Limeira (SP, Brasil): biodiversidade e influência da urbanização". Biota Neotropica. 10 (2): 103-116.
- ↑ Firebaugh, Ariel; Haynes, Kyle J. (2016-12-01). "Experimental tests of light-pollution impacts on nocturnal insect courtship and dispersal". Oecologia. 182 (4): 1203-1211.
- ↑ Owens, Avalon Celeste Stevahn; Meyer-Rochow, Victor Benno; Yang, En-Cheng (2018-02-07). "Short- and mid-wavelength artificial light influences the flash signals of Aquatica ficta fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". PLOS One. 13 (2): e0191576.
- ↑ Kazantsev, S. V. (December 2015). "Protoluciola albertalleni gen.n., sp.n., a new Luciolinae firefly (Insecta: Coleoptera: Lampyridae) from Burmite amber". Russian Entomological Journal. 24 (1): 281-283.
- ↑ Oba, Y.; Konishi, K.; Yano, D.; Shibata, H.; Kato, D.; Shirai, T. (December 2020). "Resurrecting the ancient glow of the fireflies". Science Advances. 6 (49): eabc5705.
- ↑ Meyer-Rochow, Victor Benno (2007). "Glowworms: a review of "Arachnocampa" spp and kin". Luminescence. 22 (3): 251-265.
- ↑ Martin, Gavin J.; Stanger-Hall, Kathrin F.; Branham, Marc A.; et al. (1 November 2019). Jordal, Bjarte (ed.). "Higher-Level Phylogeny and Reclassification of Lampyridae (Coleoptera: Elateroidea)". Insect Systematics and Diversity. Oxford University Press ). 3 (6).
- ↑ Krafsur, E. S.; Moon, R. D.; Albajes, R.; Alomar, O.; Chiappini, Elisabetta; Huber, John; Capinera, John L. (2008). "Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)". Encyclopedia of Entomology. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 1429-1452.
- ↑ Ineichen, Stefan (2016). "Light into Darkness: The Significance of Glowworms and Fireflies in Western Culture". Advances in Zoology and Botany. 4 (4): 54-58.
- ↑ Fireflies Quotes. goodreads.
- ↑ Robert Frost, "Fireflies in the Garden" from The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company, Inc., renewed © 1956 by Robert Frost.
- ↑ Takada, Kenta (2012). "Japanese Interest in "Hotaru" (Fireflies) and "Kabuto-Mushi" (Japanese Rhinoceros Beetles) Corresponds with Seasonality in Visible Abundance". Insects. 3 (4): 423-431.
- ↑ 神田左京『ホタル』
- ↑ Schultz, Ted R. (2011). "Fireflies, Honey, and Silk. By Gilbert Waldbauer; illustrated by, James Nardi. Berkeley (California): University of California Press. $25.95. xi + 233 p.; ill.; index. ISBN: 978‐0‐520‐25883‐9. 2009". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 86 (2): 147-149.
- ↑ 過年與孩子玩歇後語 「雞食放光蟲」代表甚麼?
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編輯- (英文) 同步發光嘅螢火蟲,呢篇文講螢火蟲同步發光嘅現象。
- (英文) 歐洲螢火蟲同放光蟲簡介